Writing

Table of Contents

Introduction

Academic writing is a key part of your university journey, and the style may be very different from how you have written previously. You will need to combine your own ideas with those you have found in published texts, making sure to acknowledge (reference) the work of others as you go. The result should be a clear and cohesive piece of work that follows the structure of your set assignment.

What you will learn

• The basics of a clear and logical assignment structure, including how to construct introductions, paragraphs and conclusions
• How to effectively integrate sources, supporting evidence and information into your work through citation, paraphrasing and more
• Strategies for writing in an academic style, a formal and structured writing method required at university
• Techniques to write critically, including how to form, critique and counter arguments
• The specific structure, style and content requirements for each assignment type.

Criteria

Before writing, you should familiarise yourself with the information in your unit materials and marking rubric. This is the criteria your work is being assessed against. View our Understanding the question and Marking rubric guides for more information on unpacking and understanding your assignment requirements.

The structure and academic style sections will cover how to meet these criteria.

Assignment types

The most common written assignment types are:

• Case studies: an in-depth analysis or investigation of a topic or issue based on a specific example/s.
• Essays: a piece of writing that presents information and evidence to support an argument.
• Literature reviews: a critical analysis of existing knowledge or literature within a specific field.
• Reflective writing: an informal account of your thoughts, feelings, values and assumptions about a topic or experience.
• Reports: an objective analysis of a specific topic or issue, including background, analysis and discussion. Reports may be based on practical experiments and the testing of hypotheses or research and analyses of existing literature.
• Presentations: an informational speech on a particular topic using visual aids delivered within a set time frame.

Other written assessment types include short answer questions, discussion board posts, and blog posts.

The following sections of this guide will take an in-depth look at the components that make up academic writing at university.

Resources

As you work through this guide, you may want to refer to the following:

• Australian Government Style Manual: Grammar, punctuation and conventions guide

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I want to…

• Learn to unpack and understand assignment tasks and marking rubrics effectively
• Develop ideas to cover and include in my assignment
• Find additional sources to use as evidence in my work, such as journal articles and reports
• Find out how to prepare for my presentation
• Edit, proofread and format my work
• Critically evaluate and fact-check information

Assignment process

Assignments are not always a linear journey, but usually you’ll have to complete the following steps:

Structure

Structure

In academic writing, ‘structure’ refers to the organisation and arrangement of the content within your assignment or research paper. A well-structured academic assignment follows a clear and logical format that helps the reader understand your argument, research or analysis.

Importance of structure

Structure in academic writing is important for several reasons, including ensuring clear and effective communication of ideas and providing a logical flow of information. Additionally, well-structured writing allows you to highlight important points and arguments by using clear topic sentences, as well as headings and subheadings if required.

Overall, a good structure improves readability and understanding. Your analysis and evidence might be at a high level, but if your writing doesn’t communicate this clearly, your readers may have difficulty engaging with it.

Structuring an assignment

How you structure your assignment will vary depending on the type of assignment and any specific requirements or guidelines provided by your instructor. Here are some general guidelines that you can adapt to suit your assignment type:

1. Understand your assignment question. Before you start structuring your assignment, make sure you thoroughly understand what you are being asked to write. Pay attention to the topic, scope, required format, and any specific instructions provided. Refer to the Getting started guide for more information on unpacking a question.

2. Calculate roughly how many paragraphs you will need to write to meet the required word count. This will help you determine how many main points you can make, which will then help create an outline.

3. Plan your content. Consider what information and arguments you need to include in your assignment. Create a rough outline that lays out your assignment’s main sections and topics. This outline will serve as the foundation for your structure. Refer to the recommended structure on the assignment types page to create a more in-depth outline for each assignment type.

4. Include the essential elements. Most assignments will require an introduction, a body, a conclusion and a reference list.

Note: All assignment types have different structure and format requirements. This information on this page is intended as a general guide, so ensure that you check the assignment types page for any specific elements necessary for your assignment.

Introductions

Introductions are an important part of your assessment and will “set the scene” for your reader.

Your introduction should convey the message you will be presenting in the rest of your assignment and state the specific points you will be making without going into too much detail. A good way to start your introduction is to begin with a global statement, i.e., something that will capture the reader’s attention and provide context for the topic you are discussing, such as background information or a brief history of the subject. This can be followed by rewriting your assignment question as a statement, including your argument or stance on the topic*. Finish your introduction giving a brief overview of your paper and by mentioning the key points or sections it will cover.

*Note: In some assignments, particularly essays, you will need to include a thesis statement in the introduction.

You can expand on the background of your topic in the body of your assignment if needed. Generally, you wouldn’t include citations in your introduction as it should be primarily made up of your own ideas and opinions; however, if you reference specific sources or quotes, you will must cite them appropriately.

While some people prefer to write their introductions first, another strategy is to write it after the rest of your assignment. This way, you can easily refer to the content you’ve written in the body of your assignment. Whichever way you write it, you should always review your introduction alongside your content to ensure that it flows with the assignment and doesn’t introduce any information you haven’t included in your body paragraphs.

Body

The body of an assignment forms the bulk of your word count/content and is where you present and expand on your main arguments and provide analysis and evidence to support your thesis or central topic.

• Divide the body of your assignment into logical sections or paragraphs. If your assignment covers multiple subtopics or themes, consider organising the content logically, such as broad to specific (e.g., global to local) or chronologically.
• Each section or paragraph should focus on a specific point related to your topic and contribute to the overall coherence of your assignment. These sections should flow logically and sequentially.
• Start each section or paragraph with a clear topic sentence that introduces the main idea of that section.
• Provide relevant and reliable evidence, such as data, quotations or examples to support each point.
• Include analysis and interpretation of the evidence to support your arguments and explain the significance of your facts.
• Acknowledge (and perhaps refute) opposing viewpoints or counterarguments if applicable.
• Properly cite all sources used within the body of your assignment, following the referencing style specified in your assignment guidelines.
• Use linking sentences or phrases to ensure a smooth flow between sections.

Paragraph structure

A well-constructed paragraph is essential for conveying your ideas clearly and effectively. Body paragraphs typically consist of the following elements:

PEEL method

• Point: The topic sentence is the most crucial element of a paragraph. It states the main idea or point of the paragraph, providing readers with a clear indication of what to expect. It should be concise and specific.
• Evidence: After presenting the topic sentence, you need to provide evidence or examples to support your main idea. This can include data, facts, quotes from reputable sources, or examples from your research. Your evidence should be relevant and directly related to the topic sentence.
• Explanation/analysis: It’s not enough to merely present evidence; you also need to explain or analyse how the evidence supports your main idea. Demonstrate your critical thinking and understanding of the topic by explaining the significance of the evidence and its implications.
• Linking: Use linking words and phrases to connect your ideas within the paragraph and to link the paragraph to the preceding and following ones. You can do this by highlighting similarities, contrasts or other relationships between the ideas, repeating key terms or concepts. This helps maintain coherence and flow in your writing. Examples of transitional words include ‘furthermore’, ‘in addition’, ‘however’, ‘conversely’, and ‘therefore’.

Other things to remember when writing paragraphs

• Make sure all the sentences in the paragraph closely relate to the main idea presented in the topic sentence and are clearly organised, with one naturally leading to the next.
• Correctly cite and reference any information or ideas from your sources.
• It is essential to clearly distinguish between your original ideas and those derived from other sources. Often, a topic sentence or sentence where you provide an analysis or explanation of the evidence you present won’t require a citation. However, if your idea builds upon existing literature, it’s important to acknowledge that literature in your writing, as it demonstrates academic integrity and shows that your ideas are informed by relevant research. For assistance with this, view our Integrating sources guide.
• While there’s no fixed rule for the length of a paragraph, it should be long enough to fully develop the main idea and provide adequate support and analysis. In academic writing, paragraphs often range from three to eight sentences or around 200 words, but longer paragraphs can be appropriate in certain contexts.

Conclusions

The conclusion signals to the reader that the discussion is coming to an end. Take the time to write a well-structured conclusion to ensure your work is complete and well-rounded. In the conclusion, aim to:

• summarise the main points of your assignment
• restate your central argument and its significance
• leave the reader with a thought-provoking or conclusive statement.

Remember, a good conclusion will help reinforce the key takeaways for the reader and leave them with an understanding of the topic and why it matters.

Ensure that you do not include any new information in your conclusion that has not been mentioned elsewhere in your work. The conclusion functions as a summary, revising content you have covered in the body of your assignment.

Reference lists

Include a list of all the sources used in your assignment, following the appropriate referencing style (e.g., APA, Chicago).

Remember that the structure and requirements of academic writing may vary by discipline and institution. Always refer to your specific assignment guidelines and seek feedback from your instructor or advisor to ensure your work meets the expectations of your academic audience.

Integrating sources

Integrating sources

Integrating supporting evidence and information into your work is an important part of academic communication. This adds credibility by demonstrating your understanding of the existing literature and relevant research. It also reinforces the validity of your claims and allows readers to trace the origins of the information presented. Importantly, it gives credit to the intellectual contributions of others and shows respect for their work.

Citing correctly

Citing is the practice of giving credit when you include the ideas, research or data communicated by others in your work. Citations typically include details such as the author’s name and publication year and should be written following the rules of a specific referencing style.

In-text citations are the part of referencing where you give credit within your work, acknowledging theories, data or information as you present them. Every source cited in your work needs a corresponding entry in your reference list. The reference list is placed at the end of your work and provides more information about your cited sources, enabling the reader to connect to them. For more information on the formatting of citations and references, view our referencing guides.

There are several ways to structure your citations:

Plagiarism explained

Plagiarism happens when you use the work of others but present it as your own. Very few people deliberately choose to plagiarise. Instead, it occurs when referencing is overlooked or when there is very little difference between a source’s words, phrasing and structure and your assessment.

The best way to avoid accidental plagiarism is to take care during the note-taking phase of the writing process. Take notes in your own words rather than copying phrases directly, and note down the details of the information source alongside the relevant notes. That way, when you include the ideas in your assessment, you will know which source to cite.

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is writing someone else’s ideas into your own words. It involves rephrasing information from a source while maintaining the original meaning. It is not simply about replacing a few words with synonyms – you need to understand the core concepts and restructure the information to reflect your understanding. By paraphrasing, you demonstrate your ability to seamlessly incorporate ideas and evidence into your writing, showcasing your understanding of the subject matter and your unique voice.

Step-by-step

1. Identify the content you want to paraphrase. If your selected excerpt/passage exceeds four sentences, jump to the summarising section.
2. Re-read the content/excerpt and identify the most important concepts or key words. This is the information that must be included in your paraphrase to ensure that the meaning isn’t changed as you rewrite it. In our example, the key concepts are new technologies, societal good, sustainable development, AI regulation, and fundamental rights.
3. Cross out any words, information or examples that aren’t necessary or can be grouped into a larger category. In our example, “new technologies, especially those based on AI” can be combined into “new AI developments”.
4. Note the order that these concepts and words are presented in within the original passage. In the original example, the order of information is: new technology, societal good and sustainable development, regulation, then fundamental rights.
5. Cover the original passage and rephrase the content by reorganising the structure, replacing words, and reducing overall length.
6. Compare with the original passage to ensure that you have not copied the source material.
7. Insert your citation in the appropriate position. If your paraphrase consists of more than one sentence, ensure that you have introduced the first sentence with an author-prominent citation and placed an information-prominent citation at the end of the second.

Tips for paraphrasing

• Understand the material: Before paraphrasing, make sure you fully understand the original text. Break down complex ideas into key points and concepts.
• Take notes first: Jot down the main ideas from the source material in your own words. This will help you internalise the information and make it easier to paraphrase later.
• Use your own words: Avoid directly copying sentences. Instead, rephrase the content while preserving the original meaning. You may like to replace words with synonyms and reorganise sentence structures. Be mindful of the context to ensure accuracy.
• Acknowledge the source: Use correct citation methods to show the source of the information. See above for information on how to cite correctly.
• Compare your paraphrase with the original: Ensure you haven’t inadvertently retained too much of the original wording or structure. Check that your paraphrase begins differently than the original source and that the information is presented in a different order.

Summarising

Unlike paraphrasing, which rephrases information in your own words, summarising distils the essence of a passage into a shorter version. In academic writing, it involves capturing the key points and main ideas of a text while omitting unnecessary details. A well-crafted summary demonstrates your understanding of the material and allows you to convey complex information to your audience efficiently.

You can summarise a whole text, a section of it, or a paragraph. However long your summary is, it should not be a full recap or synopsis of the information, or simply a description of what happened; you are conveying only the main ideas from the original source. This means you should leave out supporting ideas and examples.

Step-by-step

1. Identify the content that you want to summarise and re-read it thoroughly to make sure you understand it.
2. Break the passage into sections to make it more manageable. Most research articles will be structured around a series of sub-themes.
3. Highlight the most important information and make notes in your own words. When reading for an assessment on a particular topic, the key information may be the information that is most relevant to your needs.
4. Remove examples and supporting ideas. When summarising, the goal is to find the essential points, so leave out anything that can be considered supplementary.
5. Begin writing your summary using only your notes. If you are stuck on what to include, hide your notes and attempt to recount the original content without looking at the source.
6. Compare your summary to your notes and the original source. Have you used your own words while keeping the original meaning? Is your summary simply describing the original piece? If it is just a description, try again and see what details you can exclude.

Tips for summarising

• Understand the text: Before attempting to summarise, ensure you thoroughly understand the original text. Identify the main ideas, key arguments, and supporting evidence. If you don’t understand a word, use a dictionary or Gen-AI to learn what they mean. Avoid trying to guess the meanings.
• Take notes first: Jot down the main ideas from the source material in your own words. This will help you internalise the information and make it easier to write the summary later.
• Use your own words: Avoid directly copying sentences. Instead, rephrase the content while preserving the original meaning. Imagine telling someone else about the passage. What are the main points they would need to know to understand it?
• Be selective: Summarising involves condensing information, so omit unnecessary or minor details and examples.
• Maintain logical flow: Organise the summarised information in a logical order, ensuring that the main ideas follow a coherent structure.
• Acknowledge the original source: Use correct citation methods to show the source of the information. See above for information on See above for information on how to cite correctly.

Synthesising

Unlike paraphrasing and summarising, which use only one source’s idea at a time, a synthesis combines similar findings amongst two or more sources, allowing you to demonstrate links between different authors. Synthesis requires you to analyse, interpret and combine information to generate new insights or perspectives. This process fosters a deeper understanding of the subject matter and allows you to present a nuanced and comprehensive view.

Step-by-step

1. Identify the theme of your paragraph or the claim you want to support with evidence.
2. Referring to your notes, highlight information related to the theme you are trying to support, including contrary or disagreeing information.
3. Restructure and/or group your selected information into sub-themes or concepts. For example, agrees vs disagrees, affects one group vs affects another, etc. You can do this by colour coding or numbering.
4. Write your synthesis, paraphrasing or summarising the information from the sources. Make use of transition phrases and linking words.

Tips for synthesising

• Read and analyse sources carefully: Identify key arguments, evidence, and the author’s main points. It is also important to consider what the authors haven’t covered.
• Ensure you take notes on your sources: It’s much easier to synthesise information after unpacking and annotating the information you’re working with. Including page numbers will help if you need to return to the original source later.
• Highlight relationships between sources: This could involve comparing viewpoints, demonstrating how one source builds upon another or highlighting complementary perspectives.
• Organise your thoughts: Create an outline or mind map to organise the information from various sources. This visual representation can help you see connections and develop your own perspective.
• Maintain a balanced tone: Acknowledge conflicting viewpoints and demonstrate an awareness of the complexities within the topic.
• Acknowledge the sources: Use correct citation methods to show the source of the information. See above for information on See above for information on how to cite correctly.

Quoting

Quoting involves directly incorporating the exact words of an author into your work. Quotes are used to support your arguments, provide evidence or showcase an expert’s opinion. Use quotations when the author expresses something in a way that significantly strengthens your point or idea, uses a particularly striking or memorable phrase, or their authority in the field lends itself to using their exact words.

Always use quotation marks to denote the exact words from the source and include the author’s name, publication year and page number to provide proper citation.

Tips for quoting effectively

• Choose quotes wisely: Select quotes that are relevant, impactful, and directly support your argument. Using too many quotes will drown your own voice. A good rule of thumb is to keep quotations under 5% of the total words.
• Maintain context: Provide sufficient context before and after the quote to help readers understand its relevance and how it fits into your overall argument.
• Integrate quotes smoothly: Avoid abrupt transitions by incorporating the quoted material into your sentence structure. Attributing the quote to the author can help integrate it into the flow of your writing (e.g., According to Smith, “life is good”.)
• Add words to a quote: Do this to help it blend with the rest of your sentence, particularly if you need to change tense, help it make more sense or make something more concise. Record your words in square brackets.
  • Original quote: “The program is utterly indifferent to the truth or falsehood of its writings.” (MacKenzie, 2023, p. 9)
  • Quote with added words: “The [ChatGPT] program is utterly indifferent to the truth or falsehood of its writings.” (MacKenzie, 2023, p. 9)
• Consider length: Be mindful of the length of your quotes. In general, shorter quotes are often more effective, allowing you to maintain control over the narrative. Quotes longer than 40 words are usually indented with quotation marks removed.
• Use an ellipsis: An ellipsis shows that something has been left out of the original wording and that your quote differs somewhat from the source. You can leave out words that are not needed if it doesn’t change the meaning of the original statement. Note: in general, you don’t need to use an ellipsis if words are left out of the beginning or end of a quote; however, if the reader might mistake an incomplete quote for a complete one, then an ellipsis should be used.
  • Original quote: “ChatGPT became the fastest-growing online app for consumers in history, reaching one million users in the first five days after its release and 100 million in its first two months.” (MacKenzie, 2023, p. 9)
  • Quote with ellipsis: “ChatGPT became the fastest-growing online app for consumers in history, reaching … 100 million in its first two months.” (MacKenzie, 2023, p. 9)
• Use [sic] for unconventional words, grammar or spelling: When quoting, you should use the exact words from the source, even if the author has used regionally different spelling, incorrect grammar, or an unconventional word. In these situations, include the word ‘sic’ (meaning intentionally so written) in square brackets next to the word in question. E.g., [sic].

Academic style

Academic style

University assessments require a specific way of writing known as ‘academic style’, which is a more formal and structured writing method than others you may be familiar with. Learn to write in an academic style is important, as it will help you effectively communicate your ideas clearly and precisely, with authority and professionalism.

Characteristics of academic style

To write in an academic style, ensure that you:

• Support arguments with credible sources and correct citations
• Write and present ideas in an objective way
• Use clear, precise language and avoid vague expressions, jargon, and repetition
• Critically analyse ideas by questioning existing knowledge
• Use correct grammar, punctuation, and spelling
• Maintain a formal tone by avoiding casual or conversational language
• Use third-person perspective (“they”, “it”, “she”, and “he”) except when writing reflectively
• Spell out contractions (e.g., use “cannot” instead of “can’t”)
• Refer to authors by surname to establish a respectful, formal tone
• Spell out acronyms on first use (e.g., “World Health Organization (WHO)”)
• Define specialised terms when first introduced.

Non-academic style example

H5P interactive activity

Active and passive voice

Understanding the difference between active and passive voice is fundamental to writing proficiency. Whether active or passive voice is most appropriate will depend on what you are trying to communicate.

Active voice highlights the person or entity responsible for the action, making it ideal for situations where you want to emphasise agency. Active voice is more direct and concise and is preferred for persuasive, argumentative writing, like essays and short answer questions.

Passive voice often downplays or omits the person or entity doing the action, which can be useful in cases where the entity is unknown, unimportant, or intentionally obscured. Passive voice is more suited to scientific writing, where you may need to emphasise the target of the action.

To understand the difference between active and passive voice, let’s look at sentences in more detail:

Simple sentences are made up of three different elements:

1. Subject (S) = the focus of your sentence
2. Verb (V) = the action
3. Object (O) = the thing being acted on

An active sentence is when the sentence focuses on the ‘doer’ of the action.

For example, “The storm(S) affected(V) crop growth(O).” Here, the reader’s focus is placed on the storm. We might expect to see a sentence like this in an essay or report about storms.

A passive sentence is when the sentence focuses on the receiver of the action.

For example, “Crop growth(O) was affected(V) by the storm(S).” Here, the reader’s focus is placed on the crop growth. We might expect to see a sentence like this in a report on crop growth.

To change between the forms, determine your sentence’s subject, verb and object, then restructure it so that the subject is the focus (active).

When revising or proofreading your assessment, it’s useful to identify places where you have inadvertently used passive voice where the active voice would make your writing more engaging, dynamic and reader-friendly.

Online tools such as Grammarly and Hemingway Editor can help you identify passive sentences and will provide tips on improving your writing.

Writing effective sentences

Crafting well-structured sentences will help you communicate your ideas more effectively. It will enhance the clarity of your ideas and hopefully foster a connection with your reader. A well-constructed sentence will contribute to the logical flow of your argument and help the reader navigate your assessment easily.

Tips for writing effective sentences:

• Understand the purpose: Ask yourself what information you would like to convey.
• Start with a clear subject: The subject is usually the person or thing performing the action in the sentence.
• Include a verb: Ensure that your sentence contains a strong and relevant verb (action word) to convey the action.
• Be concise: Avoid unnecessary words and get straight to the point. Clear and concise sentences are more effective and easier to understand.
• Vary sentence structure and length: Using a mix of simple, compound, and complex sentences makes your writing more engaging.
• Proofread: Ensure you are using correct punctuation and grammar and that your verb tenses are consistent
• Cite any sources used: Ensure you acknowledge your sources with in-text citations using the correct referencing style.

Sentences explained

Linking ideas

Linking words and phrases (often referred to as transition markers) connect your ideas within a paragraph and link paragraphs together. You can do this by highlighting similarities, contrasts or other relationships between the ideas or repeating key terms or concepts. This helps maintain coherence and flow in your writing and allows the reader to follow the direction of your argument.

Try using some of the following linking words to create more cohesion and flow in your writing. However, only use them when you need to!

• Adding: and, also, in addition, moreover, furthermore
• Contrasting: however, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, by contrast
• Clarifying: in other words, that is, in effect, to simplify
• Exemplifying: for example, for instance, in particular, to illustrate
• Conceding a point: although true, even though, although, despite this
• Summing up: to summarise, to conclude, in conclusion, clearly then
• Endorsing: clearly, in particular, importantly, naturally, obviously
• Stating a logical conclusion: therefore, thus, hence, as a result, consequently, accordingly, for that reason

Punctuation

Punctuation is a key part of assessment writing as it demonstrates attention to detail and increases readability.

It refers to all the marks and symbols used to structure your sentences appropriately, such as commas, semicolons and quotation marks. Correct punctuation is crucial in conveying the precise meaning of your words and preventing misinterpretation and confusion.

Important considerations of punctuation in academic style include using:

• Commas to indicate pauses within sentences
• Parentheses (like dashes and brackets) to offset additional information
• Semicolons to join simple sentences that are related
• Colons to introduce a list, series, quote, or expanded information
• Apostrophes to indicate possession or contractions (note: academic style does not allow contractions)
• Quotation marks, also known as speech marks, are used when using the exact words from another source.

For a more in-depth explanation of using punctuation correctly, refer to the Australian Government Style Manual Grammar, punctuation conventions guide.

Inclusive language

Using inclusive language is important not only in everyday life but also in your academic writing. Inclusive language can mean all the following:

• Using non-gendered language when referring to authors or people (e.g., “they” rather than “he/she”)
• Using culturally appropriate terms and capitalisation when necessary, e.g., “Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people” or “Indigenous Australians”.
• Using descriptive language (age, ethnicity, sex, gender, etc.) of a person only when necessary/relevant to the discussion.
• Avoiding perpetuating stereotypes or assumptions of individuals or groups based on their characteristics
• Using language that respects the diversity of cultural backgrounds, age, sexual orientation and socio-economic contexts.

Inclusive language is not about being politically correct or “woke”; it’s about making sure your writing is accessible and respectful to all.

Writing critically

Writing critically

An important part of university assessments is your ability to write critically. Writing critically is more than just summarising facts – it involves actively analysing information, questioning assumptions, forming arguments, and linking knowledge to different contexts. The elements of critical writing tie into each other, so it is helpful to consider if you have addressed and included each one in your writing.

Bias

Bias in writing occurs when the author’s personal beliefs, values, or opinions influence how information is presented, leading to an unbalanced representation of a subject or issue. While all information is inherently biased, there is a difference between unconscious and deliberate bias.

When writing, it is important to acknowledge both your own biases and the biases in whatever you are analysing and citing.

Bias in writing can look like:

• Confirmation bias – choosing evidence or data that supports a specific viewpoint while ignoring conflicting information.
• Generalisations – making broad statements that claim to be true in all cases when the statement is only true in some cases. This includes sweeping assumptions (e.g. “AI will replace all jobs”) and stereotypes (e.g., “Canadians are polite”)
• Cultural bias – when a writer favours one culture over another, leading to an unbalanced representation of perspectives. This often happens unintentionally, as your ideas may reflect the culture you are in.
• Political bias – when a writer’s political beliefs influence the presentation of information, leading to a one-sided or skewed argument. This could include emphasising a political stance; unfair, emotional statements about opposing factions; or dismissing contrary evidence without analysis or discussion.
• Gender bias – favouring one gender over another, leading to unequal representation or stereotypical portrayals - for example, a research paper discussing leadership qualities that consistently uses male pronouns when referring to leaders.

Further information about critically evaluating sources can be found in the Critical thinking module.

To avoid bias in your writing, do the following:

• Acknowledge counterarguments by addressing opposing viewpoints or counterarguments.
• Avoid emotive language such as appalling, destroyed, angrily, persevered, heartwarming, deranged, irresponsible, ugly, etc.
• Avoid loaded language by considering different meanings or connotations attached to words, such as riot vs protest, asylum seeker vs illegal immigrant, etc.
• Be aware of your own biases and perspectives – you may be more prone to some ideas over others. View the Critical thinking module for more information on assessing your own personal biases.

Forming arguments

In academic writing, an ‘argument’ is your stance, view or conclusion on a topic. It is a group of statements supported and explained by evidence. To create a strong argument, you should:

1. Create an outline that organises your ideas logically. This helps ensure that each point supports and reinforces your main thesis. You can do this using our draft assignment planner [DOCX, 34kB]). It may help to start broad and become more specific as you progress.
2. Lay out supporting evidence for each idea or point you are making. Do you have enough evidence to support your points fully? Do you have evidence from multiple sources?
3. Provide analysis and interpretation of the evidence. Strong arguments go beyond simply presenting facts.

Critiquing research

Content coming soon.

Counterarguments

Critical writing involves comparing arguments and points of view. Your writing will be stronger when you acknowledge conflicting opinions, as it demonstrates a comprehensive understanding of the topic and strengthens the credibility of your argument.

Strategies to address counterarguments include:

• Acknowledge the existence of counterarguments and show respect for differing perspectives.
• Use concessive statements acknowledging validity, e.g., “While it is true that…”
• Counter each counterargument with relevant evidence and thorough analysis. Demonstrate why your position remains stronger or more supported by the available evidence.
• Highlight weaknesses in counterarguments by identifying weaknesses, flaws or limitations.
• Proactively address any potential counterarguments before they are presented by integrating them into your argument and offering responses

For tips on smoothly incorporating counterarguments and differences into our writing, visit the academic style section on transition phrases.

Assessment types

Assessment types

You will encounter many different assessment types throughout your studies, each with unique challenges and requirements. While the structure guide gives you the building blocks to create an assessment in general, this guide covers the distinct structures and characteristics of different assessment types and common errors that students make.

Annotated bibliography

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An annotated bibliography is a critical analysis of the scholarly work in a field and its relevance to a particular topic or question. Unlike standard bibliographies, it requires you to evaluate each source’s research methods, summarise and assess its arguments, and consider how it does/does not fit in with your research.

White annotated bibliographies and literature reviews may seem similar, it is important not to confuse them. In an annotated bibliography, sources are reviewed and written about individually and should not make references to other works. In comparison, a literature review is a synthesis of multiple sources, where the intention is to make connections and build an overview of a topic.

An annotated bibliography assesses your ability to critically review sources for their individual strengths, weaknesses, arguments and findings. It demonstrates your ability to collect a comprehensive selection of sources and may be completed as a step to a longer work, such as a report or literature review.

Step-by-step

1. Identify the overall aim of your annotated bibliography. What question or topic are you required to address? What are the key words for your search?
2. Choose a range of sources that provide a variety of perspectives on your topic.
3. Review and evaluate the source using note-taking strategies.
4. Write the citation in your unit’s chosen referencing style.
5. Write the annotation beneath the relevant citation, including all required elements .

When reviewing and evaluating each item in your bibliography, you should take separate notes before compiling each ‘annotation’. A particularly effective note-taking style for an annotated bibliography is the Cornell note-taking process, which we cover in detail in our Note-Taking guide. You may also find the NVivo tool useful.

Ensure that you identify the following elements when taking notes for an annotated bibliography:

• Does the source cover the topic thoroughly or only certain aspects of it? What is missing from the source?
• What approach does the author take? How was data collected?
• Does the argument seem reasonable based on the data provided?
• How does it compare to the other studies you are using for the bibliography? Does is agree with or contradict it?

Annotation structure

1. Aim
2. Methodology and research scope
3. Summary of findings
4. Author conclusion
5. Relevance to your research
6. Limitations
7. Reflection

As you compile the annotations, you may notice additional pieces of information about sources you have previously read (e.g. an idea about another source). Ensure you have made notes on all sources you will be using before you begin writing your annotations. Annotations should not be longer than a single paragraph. As you are addressing one source at a time, do not cross-reference or refer to other sources.

If you are having trouble with any of these areas, view the rest of the writing guide or book an appointment with a Peer Academic Mentor.

Case studies

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A case study involves an in-depth examination of a specific subject or scenario, analysing its complexities and offering insights into real-world (or hypothetical) problems or situations. Often, it will focus on a representative person, group of people, or other samples. A case study will generally relate to theories or methods in your chosen field of study and their applications in the broader context of your discipline. It is common for case studies to be focused on solving a particular problem and thus include potential solutions to problems or recommendations for action.

The purpose of a case study is to apply theoretical knowledge to real-world situations and is valuable in helping you prepare for professional practice. They require you to think critically, analyse complex issues, and develop effective problem-solving skills.

Case studies are divided into sections with subheadings, allowing the reader to jump to specific points of interest. This allows you to present information you have gathered or researched about a particular topic in a way your reader easily understands.

There are different types of case studies and ways to structure the information, so it is important to check your assessment instructions, suggested structure, and assessment criteria/marking rubric.

Structure of a case study

A typical case study will be structured as follows:

Introduction

The introduction of your case study should provide a concise overview of your study’s subject, background, and objectives. Clearly state the problem or issue you will be addressing and outline the purpose of the case study.

Literature review (optional)

In this section, you establish the context for your investigation. Critically examine existing research and scholarly articles relevant to your case study topic. Identify key theories, concepts, and findings that relate to your study. Analyse the gaps or controversies in the literature that your case study aims to address.

Findings

Present the findings of your case study in a clear and organised manner. Use a combination of text, tables, and figures to illustrate your results. Describe any patterns, trends, or significant observations. Make sure to align your findings with the purpose or objectives of the research outlined in the introduction. Describe any research methods you used to enhance the credibility of your results, including data collection and analysis.

Discussion

In the discussion section, interpret and analyse your findings about the existing literature. Explore the implications of your results and discuss any limitations or constraints in your study. Consider alternative explanations for your findings and address their significance. Engage in a critical reflection on the strengths and weaknesses of your approach.

Conclusion/recommendations

Conclude your case study by summarising the key findings and their implications. Recommend future research or practical applications based on your study’s outcomes. Clearly state your case study’s contributions to the existing body of knowledge and suggest avenues for further exploration.

References

List all the sources cited in your case study. Ensure that you adhere to the correct referencing style specified by your instructor. Pay careful attention to the accuracy and formatting of your references, as this enhances the credibility and professionalism of your work.

Appendices (if necessary)

Attach any supplementary materials, such as raw data, questionnaires, or additional information that supports and complements your case study. Ensure that each appendix is labelled and referenced appropriately within the main text.

Common mistakes

• Insufficient background information
• Main issues not clearly defined
• Theory has not been applied sufficiently
• Analysis is superficial
• Recommendations are poorly supported.

If you need help with any of these areas, view the rest of the writing guide or book an appointment with a Peer Academic Mentor.

Essays

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An essay is a written work that presents a coherent argument, analysis, or discussion on a particular topic.

While most essays aim to inform the reader about a particular topic, the specific purpose will depend on the type of essay.

• Persuasive essays seek to convince readers of a specific viewpoint or argument.
• Argumentative essays are a subset of persuasive essays and aim to present a clear argument supported by evidence. They often address counterarguments.
• Analytical essays focus on breaking down a complex topic or issue into its constituent parts and examining them critically.
• Descriptive essays use vivid language and sensory details to paint a picture or create a mental image of a person, place, object, or experience.
• Narrative essays tell a story or recount a personal experience.
• Expository essays aim to explain or clarify a topic, concept, or process in a straightforward and informative manner.

Thesis statements

A fundamental part of any essay is a thesis statement.

A thesis statement is a concise, specific sentence that articulates the main point or claim of an essay or research paper. It serves as a roadmap for your readers, outlining the central idea you will explore and support throughout your writing.

It is recommended that you create a simple thesis statement before you begin writing to help create a roadmap for your work. As you construct your work, you should revise and refine it as necessary.

A formula for creating simple but effective thesis statements is the opening statement plus three (OS+3) method. This involves directly rephrasing the assessment question to reflect your overall position and providing the three main themes/ideas that your assessment will cover.

Once you have planned out what your assessment will include, you can return to the introduction to write the thesis statement.

To create a strong thesis statement, you should:

1. Understand your assessment, including identifying the main topic or question you will address in your paper.
2. In one or two sentences, express the primary message you want to convey in your paper. A good way to do this is to reword the assessment question.
3. Review the statement to make sure it is not too vague or general. Ambiguous thesis statements can lead to unclear or unfocused essays.
4. Take a stand – a strong thesis statement should go beyond stating facts and should express a debatable position that you will support and defend in your paper. If you find this challenging, consider making a list of how you feel about the topic. What do you believe? Brainstorming may help with this.
5. Avoid announcement statements. Your thesis shouldn’t announce your topic but present an arguable point about it. Instead of saying, ‘This essay will discuss [topic], make a claim about the topic.

Essay structure

A typical essay will be structured as follows:

Introduction

The introduction of your essay serves as the roadmap for your reader. Begin with a compelling hook to grab attention, then provide context for your topic, articulate the thesis statement (your essay’s main argument or purpose), and outline the key points you will address in the body. The introduction sets the tone and establishes the direction for the entire essay.

Body

The body of your essay is where you present your argument, evidence, and analysis. Each paragraph should focus on a specific idea or aspect of your thesis statement. Start with a clear topic sentence, support it with evidence or examples, and then provide analysis or interpretation to demonstrate how it relates to your overall argument. Ensure smooth transitions between paragraphs, creating a cohesive flow that guides the reader through your logical progression of ideas.

Conclusion

The conclusion is your opportunity to reinforce the significance of your argument and provide a sense of closure. Summarise the key points discussed in the body, emphasising how they support your thesis. Avoid introducing new information in the conclusion. Instead, offer broader insights or implications related to your topic. Conclude with a thought-provoking statement or a call to action to reinforce the importance of your essay’s main message.

References

List all the sources cited in your case study. Ensure that you adhere to the correct referencing style specified by your instructor. Pay careful attention to the accuracy and formatting of your references, as this enhances the credibility and professionalism of your work.

Common mistakes:

• Thesis statement is weak or unclear
• Ideas are not expressed clearly or concisely
• Lacks good structure
• Poor transitions, meaning ideas don’t flow well
• Overuse of jargon, not explaining technical terminology
• Inadequate research
• Lack of critical analysis
• Not properly edited or proofread.

If you need help with any of these areas, view the rest of the writing guide or book an appointment with a Peer Academic Mentor.

Literature reviews

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A literature review is a critical analysis of published sources within a specific field of study. It may be a standalone piece of writing or form part of a report, thesis or other research project.

The purpose of a literature review is to synthesise and summarise key findings, concepts, theories, and methodologies from multiple sources. It is useful in identifying ongoing debates, controversies, or conflicting viewpoints within the field, as well as gaps or areas where there is limited research.

When a literature review is written as part of a research project, it helps place your research or study within the context of the existing body of knowledge. It can provide a foundation for the theoretical underpinnings of your research, help justify the research questions or hypotheses you intend to explore in your study, and can inform your research design and methodology.

Literature review structure

A typical literature review will be structured as follows:

Introduction

Begin your literature review with a concise introduction that contextualises the topic, outlines the scope of the review, and articulates the purpose or objective. Clearly state the research questions or themes you aim to address, providing a roadmap for the reader to follow your exploration of relevant scholarly work.

Body

In the body of your literature review, organise the existing literature around key themes, concepts, or debates related to your research questions. Summarise and synthesise findings from different sources, highlighting similarities, differences, and gaps in the current knowledge. Critically evaluate the methodologies and approaches used in the studies you review, emphasising the strengths and weaknesses of each.

Discussion/analysis

Engage in a thoughtful discussion of the literature, synthesising the information to identify patterns, trends, or inconsistencies. Analyse how different studies contribute to the understanding of your research questions and discuss any controversies or unresolved issues in the literature. This section should demonstrate your ability to think critically and make connections between diverse sources.

Conclusion

Conclude your literature review by summarising the main findings, emphasising their significance in the context of your research objectives. Highlight any gaps in the literature that your study aims to address and suggest potential avenues for future research. A well-constructed conclusion reinforces the importance of your research and sets the stage for developing your own work.

References

List of all the sources cited in your literature review. Ensure that you adhere to the correct referencing style specified by your instructor. Pay careful attention to the accuracy and formatting of your references, as this enhances the credibility and professionalism of your work.

Common mistakes

• Limited or biased selection of sources
• Ignores alternative or contradictory viewpoints
• Disjointed or disorganised structure
• Too broad or vague, lacking focus
• Insufficient analysis or synthesis
• Does not effectively use evidence to support the argument.

If you need help with any of these areas, view the rest of the writing guide or book an appointment with a Peer Academic Mentor.

Reflective writing

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Reflective writing requires individuals to reflect upon and explore their thoughts, experiences, opinions, and emotions on a particular topic, event, or subject matter. Although you should write more informally and include your personal perspective more, it is still important to organise your ideas clearly.

When reflective writing, you need to critically analyse and evaluate your experiences and ideas, question your assumptions, and consider alternative viewpoints. You need to connect your personal experiences to broader concepts and theories, and the course content. Integrating personal and academic content helps deepen your self-awareness and understanding of your experience and learning.

Tips for reflective writing

• Be honest and authentic
• Use descriptive language
• Connect theory and practice
• Consider different perspectives
• Identify lessons learned

Models for reflective writing

Using a reflective writing model will help you structure your reflection effectively and ensure that your writing is critical and authentic.

Check your assessment information before writing to see if a particular model has been recommended.

What? So what? Now what?

1. What? Report what happened during your experience in an objective manner, providing detailed facts.
2. So what? Describe what you learned, including feelings, ideas, analysis, challenges, etc.
3. Now what? Consider the broader implications of your experience and apply any learning or theory. This section includes realistic future goals and critical thought about how this experience will impact you in future. Often, it is useful to reflect on what you would do differently if you were to experience a similar event or scenario.

Gibb’s reflective cycle

Gibb’s Reflective Cycle is a popular model of reflective thinking and writing, which encourages people to consider their experiences in a more in-depth and analytical way.

1. Description: What happened? When and were did it happen? Who or what was involved?
2. Feelings: What were you thinking and feeling before, during and after the situation?
3. Evaluation: What was good and bad about the experience? What did you and other people contribute to the situation?
4. Analysis: Why did or didn’t things go well? What knowledge (including academic sources) can help you understand the situation?
5. Conclusion: What did you learn? What could you have done differently? What skills do you need to develop to help you handle a situation like this better?
6. Action Plan: If the situation happened again, what would you do differently? How can you make sure that you act differently next time?

When using the Gibb’s model, ensure that you are using critical thinking and analysis skills, reflecting on assumptions that you may hold, and considering how you would respond differently in future.

Four Rs model of reflective thinking

1. Report
   • Provide a brief description of the event, situation or issue. This establishes context for the experience.
   • Describe your reaction or response to the situation, including any emotions, thoughts or beliefs you may have had.
2. Relate
   • Connect the situation to your personal skills, experience and understanding.
   • Relate the situation and your experience to relevant theories and/or research.
3. Reason
   • Find an explanation for the situation.
   • Describe the connection between theory and experience. This will allow for a deeper understanding about why something happened.
4. Reconstruct
   • Provide a conclusion and discuss improvements that could be made to the situation or experience.
   • Identify any changes for improvements for future planning. If you experienced this event, situation or issue again in future, what would you do differently?
   • Apply learning to other contexts and for your future professional practice. How will what you learned through this experience help you with other situations or in your future career?

Prompts to help when reflecting

• What happened? Describe the event or experience in detail. What was your role or involvement?
• What were your thoughts and feelings? Explore your initial reactions and emotional responses. How did your feelings evolve during the experience?
• What did you learn? Identify new insights or knowledge gained. How does this experience connect to your academic learning?
• How did others perceive the situation? Consider the perspectives of others involved. Were there any differences in perception?
• What worked well, and what could have been improved? Evaluate the success and challenges encountered. What changes or improvements would you suggest?
• How does this experience connect to your personal and professional development? Discuss the impact of the experience on your personal growth. Consider implications for future academic or professional endeavours.
• How might you approach similar situations differently in the future? Reflect on lessons learned and their application to future scenarios. What strategies or changes would you implement?
• What questions or uncertainties have emerged? Address any lingering questions or areas of uncertainty. Are there aspects you would like to explore further?

Common mistakes

• Reflections are too superficial
• Does not connect with the course material
• Avoids challenging experiences or emotions
• Lack of critical analysis and consideration of alternative viewpoints
• Tone is too formal
• Structure is disorganised.

If you need help with any of these areas, view the rest of the writing guide or book an appointment with a Peer Academic Mentor.

Reports

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A report is a structured document that systematically gathers, analyses, and presents information on a specific topic, issue, event, or research question.

The purpose of a report will depend on the context. In general, however, reports aim to convey information, data, findings and analysis in a structured and organised manner. Reports often include tables, charts, graphs, and other visual aids to illustrate data and findings. They are usually tailored to the needs and expectations of the intended audience.

There are many different types of reports, including:

• Research reports involve research, investigation, or data collection.
• Technical reports provide documentation for processes, designs, or technical specifications.
• Business reports may focus on problem-solving, identifying issues and assessing potential solutions.
• Lab reports communicate experimental procedures, results and interpretations.
• Policy or project evaluation reports may evaluate policies or projects and assess outcomes and impacts.

Structure of a report

A typical report will be structured as follows:

Abstract/executive summary

The executive summary provides a concise overview of the entire report, summarising key findings, conclusions, and recommendations. It serves as a snapshot, offering a quick understanding of the report’s purpose and outcomes.

Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for the report, outlining the background, purpose, and objectives. Clearly state the problem or question the report aims to address and provide a brief roadmap for the reader to follow, previewing the key sections and the scope of the investigation.

Findings

Present the information or data gathered during the research phase in a clear and organised manner. Use tables, graphs, or charts if necessary to enhance understanding. Ensure that the findings directly address the research questions or objectives outlined in the introduction.

Discussion

In the discussion section, interpret and analyse the findings, providing context and insight. Explore relationships between different elements of the data, consider alternative explanations, and critically evaluate the significance of the results. This section aims to deepen the reader’s understanding of the presented information.

Conclusion

Summarise the report’s main points and key findings, emphasising their implications. Avoid introducing new information in the conclusion and instead focus on synthesising the existing content to reinforce the overall message.

Recommendations

Offer specific recommendations based on the findings and conclusions of the report. These suggestions should be actionable and linked directly to the issues discussed, providing a practical guide for decision-makers or stakeholders.

References

List of all sources cited in the report. Ensure that you adhere to the correct referencing style specified by your instructor. Pay careful attention to the accuracy and formatting of your references, as this enhances the credibility and professionalism of your work.

Appendices

Attach supplementary materials that support or enhance the report, such as raw data, additional charts, graphs, or detailed explanations. Clearly label and reference each appendix within the main body of the report to facilitate easy navigation for the reader.

Common mistakes

• Lack of clear purpose
• Not tailored to the intended audience
• Information is poorly organised
• Research is insufficient or inaccurate
• Formatting is inconsistent
• Lack of visual aids to convey complex data.

If you are having trouble with any of these areas, view the rest of the writing guide or book an appointment with a Peer Academic Mentor.

Other assessment types

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There are many other written assessment types you may be assessed on at university. We have outlined some of the more common ones below.

Short answers

A brief and concise response to a specific question or prompt, typically requiring a focused and direct reply without extensive elaboration or explanation.

• Ensure your answers address the question directly, and are clear, relevant, focused and concise.

Discussion board post

A written contribution to an online forum or platform where individuals share thoughts, ideas, opinions, or information about a specific topic or question, fostering interactive and collaborative conversation.

• Aim to engage and contribute meaningfully to the topic and back up your statements with evidence or examples.
• Be an active participant by sharing your thoughts, ideas, or opinions and encourage discussion by asking questions or responding to the ideas of others.
• Be respectful of your fellow participants.

Blog post

A short, informal, and often opinion-based piece of online content that explores a specific topic, provides information, or shares personal insights, designed to engage and inform readers.

• Aim to combine the informality and engagement of a blog with academic rigour and structure.
• Ensure you have a central theme or main idea related to the assessment’s topic, and organise the blog post with a logical structure and concise paragraphs.
• Aim to demonstrate critical thinking and support your arguments with evidence or examples.

Portfolio

A curated collection of work, artefacts, or achievements that showcases an individual’s skills, experiences, and accomplishments, often used for professional, educational, or creative purposes.

• Aim to provide carefully chosen and curated works to showcase your best work, skills and experience.
• Ensure the organisation is clear and navigation is user-friendly.
• Consider including a reflective commentary or analysis that explains the significance of your work as well as strengths and areas for improvement.

Creative assessments

A task or project that encourages individuals to express themselves artistically or imaginatively, often involving the creation of original works such as writing, artwork, music, or multimedia presentations.

• Aim to demonstrate originality and creativity in your work.
• Show an understanding of the relevant concepts, theories and skills.
• Include a reflective or self-evaluative component that explains your choices and the creative process you underwent.

Group project

A collaborative task or assessment that involves multiple individuals working together to achieve a common goal, often requiring teamwork, coordination, and shared responsibilities.

• Create a well-defined project plan or proposal that outlines the project’s goals, objectives, scope, timeline, and deliverables.
• Establish clear roles and responsibilities and define deadlines and expectations.
• Foster effective communication and encourage regular meetings.
• Cultivate a collaborative problem-solving mindset within the group and resolve disagreements constructively.

Presentations

A verbal and visual communication of information or ideas, typically delivered to an audience using spoken words, visual aids, and often accompanied by slides or other media.

• Ensure it is well structured and content is organised logically.
• Aim to make an engaging and confident delivery with visual aids and audience interaction.
• Ensure the content is relevant to the assessment topic, and provide evidence and examples without overloading the presentation with excessive information.

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